What is Behaviorism?

In the United States, there are two conflicting psychology schools of thought. The first is the introspective psychology which has also been considered as speculative psychology and the other being behaviorism psychology, which is also considered as objective psychology. Although introspective psychology has long been accepted in the field of psychology, behaviorism has not only begun to gain more ground among psychologists but it has also begun to contest and question the premise of introspective psychology and their method of analysis and research.It was only during the 19th century that development of the field of psychology began to become evident through the efforts of Wundt who is considered to be the father of experimental psychology. Wanting to find a solution on the mind-body problem, Wundt decided in 1879 to develop psychology as a science rather than a field of study associated with philosophy. He substituted the term â€Å"soul† with the concept of the â€Å"consc iousness† and eventually developed the introspective approach in the study of psychology.According to this approach to the study of psychology, the consciousness of the individual is the primary subject matter of psychology which led to psychologists such as William James to define psychology as the study aimed to describe and explain the various states of an individual’s consciousness. In order to do this, psychologists observe the consciousness through catching it as it occurs. This school of thought had become highly accepted that it had reached the United States from Germany and became the dominant form of psychological analysis in American universities.Among the most noted introspective psychologists in the United States were E. B. Thchener of Cornell University and William James of Harvard University. In 1912, a new group of psychologist emerged. These were the behaviorists or behavioral psychologists. They began to see the shortcomings of introspective psychology . As a result, behavioral psychologists decided that the information being discovered and disseminated are no longer sufficient and they began to create their own methods for the study of psychology.The first thing done by behavioral psychologists was to change the subject matter of the field of psychology. Because the consciousness is deemed to be unobservable, they began to search for some characteristic or trait of individuals that could be observed. It was then that they began to observe the behavior of individuals which has been defined as what an individual says or does. Hence, this approach of the study of psychology as the behaviorism school of psychology. Behaviorism has also been considered as the objective approach to the study of psychology.This is because behavioral psychologists gather facts about an individual’s behavior and analyze the data through the use of logic and mathematics. This is why behaviorism has been defined as a natural science that is intereste d in the adjustments done by individuals through the study of changes in the physiological conditions of the individual which they termed as the stimuli and the response the individual would have as a result of the stimulus presented. Based on the studies done by behavioral psychologists, there are four kinds of responses exhibited by individuals.The first kind of response is classified as overt or external responses. These responses are those responses that the individual in consciously aware of such as the act of sitting, standing or walking. The second kind of response is termed as internal or implicit responses. These responses are more difficult to observe since they involve responses that occur within the body of the individual such as digestion in the stomach of the individual after the individual takes in food. The third type of response is the unlearned response which refers to instinctive responses to stimuli such as breathing.The last form is classified as learned respons e which includes the habits done by the individual such as observed when an individual sits, facial reactions and hand gestures while communicating. Analysis Up to the 1900s, the study of the human psyche was hindered by the teachings of religion. Even today, people remain to be apprehensive if the new information that is presented is contrary to the generally accepted belief. Back then, it was the teachings of the Church that provided answers and explanations to life and the universe.This is why despite the desire of Wundt to establish psychology as a branch of science, the influence dualism had on him while he was growing up provided him a subject matter that cannot be observed. As a result, all the observations done and the theories conceptualized based on these observations were viewed as speculative and were frequently contested by fellow psychologists. Behaviorism psychology developed as a result of a group of psychologists who realized that the only their theories would not b e susceptible to much speculation from their peers is by substantiating these theories with verifiable data and results.This could only be done if their subject matter could be observed. Seeing that they would be able to observe the behavior of individuals, these psychologists broke away from the accepted notion that the consciousness of the individual is the basis of the study of psychology and instead viewed that it is the behavior, and not the consciousness, of the individual that is the prime subject of study of psychology.Today, it is clear to see that behaviorism has superseded introspective psychology as the practiced school of psychology with the association of the field of psychology as the field of science that is associated with the study of an individual’s behavioral patterns and the causes for such behavioral patterns to arise. This does not mean to say that introspective psychologists failed to contribute to the current accepted school of psychology. On the cont rary, introspective psychologists paved the way for psychology to develop as it is known today.Through the introduction of the introspective school of psychology, men in the field of neurology and the other sciences were presented a field of study that would allow them to understand the human psyche and the human mind more comprehensively. Being men of science, they would eventually find loopholes to a theory or finding made by one of their peers. This would result to them further studying the human mind. It was through this process that behavioral psychologists were able to determine the shortcoming of this field of science.As a result, behaviorism through the scientific method used to validate assumptions may be able to determine just how close the speculations stipulated by the introspective psychologists were in their assumptions about the human mind and psyche. Finally, the development of behaviorism shows that psychology is continuously evolving. This is because the subject ma tter being studied is the human mind, which is considered as the most complex body part of one of the most complex, if not the most complex, organisms on this planet.

Sarah’s Key

Historical Fiction: Sarah’s Key The horror of the Holocaust is known by almost everyone in the world. We know of Hitler, the German army, however what tends to go un-noticed or forgotten are other countries’ implications. This is what Tatiana de Rosnay’s book Sarah’s Key brings up throughout its pages. Utilizing a fictional character set in the historic time of 1942 during the round-ups of the Holocaust, the reader is able to get a better sense of the great amount of pain the French Jewish people of France faced.Including these historically based chapters that were woven within another interlinking plot helps the reader learn at the same pace as the book’s main character Julia. The reader begins to rely on Julia for emotional support when learning information of such a shocking historical moment. The book offers the reader a way to learn and remember a forgotten past. Tatiana de Rosnay alternates her story between the past and the present. In the pr esent journalist Julia Jarmond discovers the story of Sarah Starzynski, a young French Jewish girl, while researching for an article to cover the 60th anniversary of the roundup.She discovers that the apartment she is about to move into with her family was once, sixty years ago, the home Sarah had been taken from during the roundup known as â€Å"spring breeze†. Julia becomes intrigued to the point of obsession with Sarah’s story and wants to know every aspect of her life, and how it is that the French police were able to do such a horrific thing. Most of the population during the time of the war simply thought, â€Å"It’s the French police, no one will harm them†¦nothing was in the papers†¦ No one seemed preoccupied. So we weren’t either† (68).Julia later learns that her in-laws, who acquired the apartment after Sarah’s family, knew a lot about the situation yet do not want to talk about it. Having the fictional life of a current woman greatly aids in having the reader relate to Sarah and the historical events; it makes it seem more convincing to have someone like Julia who is researching the subject. Alongside Julia the reader learns more about the life of the Holocaust victims and just how implicated the French people and police were in having many Jews sent to Auschwitz.We also learn how implicated Julia’s in-laws were in Sarah’s life, this also helps us get a sense of how the general civilians of time have learned to live with what their country had done. â€Å"Tears began to trickle down his face†¦ This was no longer my arrogant father-in-law. This was somebody with a secret he had carried within him for years† (157). Seeing these strong emotions strengthens the bond the reader has with these fictional characters that are reliving a very real historical event. It is virtually impossible to conceive the horror of 4,000 abused and murdered children.However, when we are introduced to a single victim and get to know her, we care very much indeed. The figures of deaths and brutalities are no longer just numbers, the reader feels the pain of Sarah realizing she could not go back and save her brother in the cupboard of her apartment: â€Å"Her fear was so great it seemed to engulf her†¦ [she] had promised [her brother she would] come back† (23). Sarah is a fictionalized character that brings a whole rush of emotions to the setting of the story as well as the other characters in it.It makes those who read this story realize just how powerful a group of people can be, and how important it is to never forget our past. â€Å"It is quite amazing the number of French people who still don’t know what happened† (43). DeRosnay uses a sort of modification to a classic flashback by using two different main characters. This is different to many other historically based novels and makes her story that much more unique and intriguing to read. â€Å" [Julia] had become obsessed with the Vel’ d’Hiv’ children.And one child, in particular† (199). It becomes easy for the reader to become wrapped up in Sarah’s predicaments and Julia’s path to discovering them. To some readers the incorporation of Julia’s story does not bring a break from the dense material of Sarah’s story. They rather find that her trivial life problems minimize the historical message apparent at the beginning of the novel. Julia’s personal life litters the plot with insecurities and marital problems that minimize the impact of the historical, yet still fictional story of Sarah.Sarah’s fate and life that she later lives in America would have offered a different side to the story, without undermining her story or the goal of informing the readers of the French peoples mistakes during the war. Incorporating Julia’s life problems turns the focus away from the travesties of the war and leaves th e reader questioning Julia’s fate and future rather than reflecting on the violent acts of the war. The reader could easily fall into a sense of pity for the injustice Julia faces being an American: â€Å"Just the sort of thing an American would do.No respect for the past† (266). The author’s ultimate goal of this book is unclear, although it is most certainly safe to say that having readers finish being more invested in Julia’s story was not her goal. The author mentions that she knew little of the Velodrome d’Hiver and the French roundups; it was considered something of a taboo in her years at school. This book, which can easily be read in a class setting, offers a way to learn about history in a less conventional way. When doing research Julia realizes that â€Å"many of the books†¦ were out of print. She] wondered why†¦ Because no one cared anymore? † (29). Thus although Julia’s life problems may seem insignificant when compared to Sarah’s, her story still helps bring to light certain feelings students or any reader would feel when learning about this history for the first time. Readers can relate with Julia’s frustration of how little is known on the subject, they feel her sadness as well, which is comforting when faced with such a subject. Sarah’s Key would not necessarily be classified as a historical novel. It does however offer historical knowledge evoked through fictional characters.This makes the information presented seem more relatable and accessible to a greater variety of people, rather than simply displaying the facts of the Holocaust. By including Julia’s story the reader is able to learn at her pace as she writes a piece for her job as a journalist. This is a very plausible situation and helps make Julia’s story all the more realistic, despite being a fictional story. Sarah’s story is also deemed more relatable since it offers an emotional and personal look into a historical time that is often stated in numbers and facts.Getting to follow Sarah at such a young age brings insight to what children and families were feeling at this time of hysteria. Learning this information can be frustrating for readers since many people know little of the French police’s implications in the roundups. This same frustration is mirrored in Julia, and is another level that the reader is able to connect with. The novel Sarah’s key has proven itself to be a new sort of historical novel that informs and brings a new sense of connection to historical knowledge.

The Arguments of the Class Theorists

Class theorists argue that class provides the basic structure of society and is also the chief cause of the inequality of modern societies. The hierarchy of the Australia class system consists of a â€Å"ruling† upper class, a â€Å"white-collar† middle class, and a â€Å"laboring† working class. There is enormous inequality between the class groups and especially between the upper- and middle-classes and the working-class. What class you belong to plays a determining role in what sort of life you lead. Those at the top of the class structure typically seem to have more power, more wealth, more opportunities, and more control over their lives than those at the bottom. They also have a greater impact on society and use this advantage to manipulate society to serve their values and suit their needs. This is no where more evident than in the social institution of education. Education is one of the great dividers amongst classes. The school you go to often determines what sort of qualifications you obtain, what job you get and, thus, how much money you earn and what class you move into. Education is a means in which individuals seek social mobility. Parents realized this long ago and some struggle to send their children to private schools to give them a better chance of succeeding in the class hierarchy. Other children, typically from working-class backgrounds, are victims of low expectations, both from their parents and internally, and leave school as soon as they can, moving into low-paid jobs near the bottom of the social ladder. Whereas, many upper-class and middle-class pupils regard tertiary education as the natural way to their future careers. John Germov states that the education system is a product of a class society and that every society must reproduce itself using its social institutions. Schools accomplish this reproduction of the class system through ideological hegemony, where the dominant belief system, that of the upper-class and even middle-class, is the overriding principle underlying the curriculum and agenda of the educational system. The dominant values, those of the upper-class, are therefore, transmitted and spread through education. This overemphasis of the upper-class ethos tends to alienate working-class children giving way to a feeling of intimidation and eventually it yields resistance to and resignation from schooling. Cultural capital- the knowledge, skills, and beliefs essential for school success- is also an important factor in educational merit. As stated earlier, those at the top of the class hierarchy usually have more wealth and more opportunities. This puts them at a straightaway advantage to those at the lower end of the hierarchy. Cultural capital varies through the classes, as is evident by the greater number of upper- and middle-class children attending tertiary institutions and the high number of working-class dropouts. The pursuit of a classless society is an important gauge of how much progress we have made in diminishing the adverse impact of class upon our lives. The idea of a classless society is unlikely to ever be achieved, but a serious critique of class may help to create a more equal society, especially in the realm of the social institution of education.

Bilateral Trade between China and Germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bilateral Trade between China and Germany - Essay Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that   Germany’s imports and exports to China have increased by one-third over the last year. Even this year the growth trends remain steady, with bilateral trade experiencing a 28 percent jump from the same time last year. The truth of the matter is that Germany is attractive for the Chinese to invest in and vice-versa. These new trade connections have strengthened the relationship between China and Germany both politically and economically. China is looking to focus more on domestic consumption, which is something that is tempting for German companies to become a part of. On the other side of the coin, China can learn a great deal about German business practices and its advanced technology. This is very important to the Chinese economy because there is a lack of technological know-how among many Chinese manufacturing companies. Reciprocally, Germany can also do with the influx of Chinese investments because of the weakened economy within the European Union.

JAPANESE GOVERNMENT SHOULD USE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY INSTEAD OF NUCLEAR Thesis Proposal

JAPANESE GOVERNMENT SHOULD USE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY INSTEAD OF NUCLEAR ENERGY - Thesis Proposal Example Geothermal power, as an energy alternative, is safer than nuclear power and offers solutions to Japan’s energy dilemma. Japan is a nation that has for thousands of years experienced volcanic eruptions and earthquakes which are of a large scale. Ironically, it is also a country that has for a long time been lamenting on its deficiency in natural resources. The questions arising are why Japan is not tapping into its huge potential for geothermal energy capacities and whether the country will eventually start to look into the possibility of tapping into such resources in the aftermath of the March 11 earthquake, nuclear crisis and tsunami. In spite of the fact that Japan is located above the third largest reserve of geothermal energy in the world, less than one per cent of its energy output is presently obtained from geothermal power. Even though the investment in nuclear energy has been high ever since the 1970s oil crisis, the Japanese government has continued to import its gas, coal and oil from overseas for a long time. Nuclear power accounted for 30% of the country’s electrical supplies at the time of the March 11 disaster and there were plans in place to increase this to 50% by 2050 (Bortz 24). Since the disaster, a shadow has been cast over the country’s nuclear plans by the government’s on-going stress testing of existing plants plus the ever growing hostile reactions by the public against nuclear energy. The government has therefore made a promise to renew energy policies of the country with a slow change towards more renewable natural energy sources such as geothermal energy. Industry leaders from Japan like Mitsubishi and Toshiba control 70% market share of geothermal technology. On the other hand, Fuji Electric had a hand in the making of the largest geothermal plant in the world last year in New Zealand, a country not its homeland. This raising the question of why Japanese companies are not investing in their home

Management, Work and Organisation ( Managing diversity) Essay

Management, Work and Organisation ( Managing diversity) - Essay Example Because of several political and socio-economic factors, it is often not possible for companies to recruit employees that are diverse in every respect. This may happen when a company produces religion specific products. It requires great consideration by an statue making company to resolve whether or not to hire Muslim employees, as the idea goes against the Islamic teachings that forbid Muslims from making idols. Likewise, managers may not be able to employ candidates that belong to countries which have long been in conflict with each other. For example, if a company hires an employee from Israel and another from Palestine, the two may never be able to develop the kind of rapport that is conducive for speedy work, and organizational success in the long run. Instead, the two may develop personal grudge against each other on the cost of organizational work, which can in turn be very detrimental for the organization as a whole. Moreover, there are companies whose products are not usabl e for every member of the society. For example, pork producing companies have no market value among the Muslim nationals just like the beef producing companies have no market value among the Hindu nationals.

Critical Thinking as the Basic Tenets of the Scientific Method Assignment

Critical Thinking as the Basic Tenets of the Scientific Method - Assignment Example What strengthens the connection between the reliability and validity of claims is when the observations in phenomenon are properly and logically explained via thorough interpretation of the results using ideas which were previously proven to be true in the past by repeatable methods and results (Tittle 235). A short process of critical thinking is mentioned in the following list: It is noticeable that in this stepwise manner, observation comes first before interpretation, and this is important because this helps in the development of logically establishing the validity, reliability, and strong value of the results (236). Learning how to think critically is a challenging way of setting up the validity of certain events or phenomenon, especially during the times when the Earth happens to move and shake, or when the atmosphere seems to become ominous or poses a danger to its inhabitants. For example, it is through repeated observations of natural events such as tornadoes or thunderstorms that people can be advised on what to do when these strike places (Wicander & Monroe 11). If not for critical thinking, people would constantly panic or run around, endangering themselves in the process. Also, because certain events have strong tendencies to be the same wherever they occur, such as volcanic eruptions or earthquakes, much more sensitive ways of observing such phenomena can be developed, which in turn not only increases reliability of observed information but also helps in better understanding the reasons why and how such natural geologic phenomena affects and shapes the  planet.